Monday, 9 June 2025

谈谈不同文化体系中的季节概念

 

Eastneyy seaside, Portsmouth_7 June 2025


谈谈不同文化体系中的季节概念

王友轩 

2018-08-12


在不同的地理位置上,气候的变化及其循环规律必然存在差异。因此,不同文明对季节的划分方式也各不相同。例如,赤道附近或南北极地区,由于气温变化不如温带明显,往往并不采用“春、夏、秋、冬”四季的划分,而是依据雨季、旱季或光照周期进行划分。有些文化虽然沿用了“四季”这一框架,但其具体含义却另有差异。

例如,印度传统历法将一年划分为六个季节(Ritu),每两个月为一个季节,依次为:春季(Vasanta)、夏季(Grishma)、雨季(Varsha)、秋季(Sharad)、初冬(Hemanta)与寒冬(Shishira)。这一划分依据的是气候、节庆与农事的周期。

在中华文化圈(包括中国、越南、朝鲜半岛、日本、蒙古等地),历法上虽然也将一年分为四季,但对季节的理解各自有自身独特的体系。中国传统历法进一步将一年划分为二十四个节气,每个节气约半个月,每个季节有六个节气,这是对季节变化更为精细的刻画。这种节气加季节的双重划分体系,体现了农耕社会对气候变化的高度敏感。

东亚四季的起始日(基于太阳黄经)
    • 立春:约2月4日(黄经315°)
    • 立夏:约5月6日(黄经45°)
    • 立秋:约8月7日(黄经135°)
    • 立冬:约11月7日(黄经225°)

需要指出的是,即使在现代社会,不同文化中关于“季节”的理解和划分也不尽相同。许多语言中虽然存在概念相近的词汇,如英语中的 springsummerautumnwinter 与汉语中的“春”、“夏”、“秋”、“冬”似乎各各对应,但这些词汇的内涵和适用范围并不完全等同。

​英国四季起始日(基于气象学)
    • Spring:3月1日
    • Summer:6月1日
    • Autumn:9月1日
    • Winter:12月1日

以“春天”为例,现代西方气象学通常以公历3月1日为春季的开始,而天文学上则以春分(约3月20–21日)为春季起点。而在中国传统历法中,春天则从“立春”(一般在2月4日前后)就已开始。因此,当西方人刚刚迎来春分之日,东亚地区早已度过了半个春季。

此外,季节与气温的对应关系也存在文化差异。以“秋天”为例,西方气象学将秋季定为9月1日至11月30日,而中国传统历法中的“立秋”通常在8月7日前后,比西方定义早了近一个月。然而,此时的中国南方往往仍处于酷热之中,“秋老虎”仍在发威,而西欧某些地区(如英国南部)则已气温转凉,白天气温降至20度以下,夜晚甚至低于10度,呈现出典型的秋意。在英语中,autumn亦称fall,即“落叶之季”,反映了自然景观在该时节的显著特征。

例如,2018年8月12日这一天,在英国南部的气温约为摄氏18度,体感上已有秋意;而在中国湘南地区,气温却仍高达摄氏28度以上。若按照中国传统节气,此时已属秋季;而在西方气象学视角中,这仍属于夏季。

可见,虽然我们在翻译中常将 spring 对应为“春天”、summer 为“夏天”、autumn 为“秋天”、winter 为“冬天”,但这四对词汇在不同文化中并非完全对等的同义词。它们的语义范围、气候特征、起止时间等均存在差异,只能说是大致相当的“语义对应项”。




结论:季节名称的语义不等值

馅饼图显示,英国的每个季节,依次比中国相应的每个季节都迟到一个月有余。

作为语言符号,spring与“春、summer 与“夏”、autumn 与“秋”、winter与“冬”,各自的季节标签分别对应太阳黄经的不同分段。虽然也有不少重叠部分,但并不完全吻合。各自所代表的气候的特点、居民的体验也都不等同。在各自所属的文化圈里,它们寓有不同的含义,并没有等值的语义。

中英文季节名称的语义不等值是印证萨丕尔-沃尔夫语言相对论猜想的又一个案例。因此,跨文化交流中,我们应避免想当然地进行逐字对译,而应理解其背后所代表的文化与自然知识体系。


Friday, 12 January 2024

On the word class of the word “每每”


“每每”的词性和词义
王友轩
新浪博客http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_5e742bd5010302ma.html
2021-03-21
.
我在阅读亲朋好友们的博文时,每每发现大家把每每一词用错了,常常读到类似我每每做什么什么时,就会怎么怎么的句子。大多数朋友们把它当做与每次每当同义的连词了。我是教语言的老师,欲就此唠叨两句。.

那么,每每的词性是什么呢?它的词义又是什么呢?.

每每是一个表示频率的副词,其意思是常常往往,用在谓词之前。这个词并不是来源当代民间的习语,而是来自古典诗词、散文的书面语。例如, 陶渊明《杂诗十二首之五》中就用了这个词:值欢无复娱,每每多忧虑。.

今人使用这个词时,当遵循典籍中的用法。可是,现在媒体上有些作者和节目主持人也每每把这个副词误作为连词来使用了,我们切莫效仿哦。

Wednesday, 10 January 2024

【散文】去年的今天


窗景 (摄于2023年1月8日下午四点)


去年的今天

— 观去年1月8日抓拍的一幅照片之后偶感


王友轩
2024年1 月8日

每天早晚,只要是在家,我必然会凭窗观景。每次看到的,总是不同的光影,不同的天色与云形。身外的客境,与内心的意识活动,就像两个对立而平行的宇宙,时时在翻江倒海般地变化着。

俱往矣,去年的今天,于今年不复存在了。我的五官感觉及四肢的健康情况也出现老之已至的明显迹象了。于是,我难免在内心发出“诸法无常”的感叹。

然而,我的邻居们却说,那窗外的景色,自十九世纪维多利亚时代到现在,从来就没有谁曾经试图改变过。社会发生了巨变,但大自然却依然如故。

我初次听到这种论述时,感觉难以苟同。难道公正的上天会私藏偏心,让每一个有机生命遭罹生老病死之苦,却独钟没有意识活动的大自然,任由其永远年轻? 瞧,手头上就有一幅去年1月8日下午4时抓拍的窗景,那时海上红霞满天,而今天的同一时刻的窗外,却乌云密布,暗无天日。

然而,子曰,“三人行,必有我师。”这些邻居们的言论虽然一时不能说服我,却像从远处被风儿吹到花园里的什么植物种子,会无影无形地深深扎在我的心田里,慢慢地萌生出一种新的认知苗头。
独自凭窗观景时,我不由得细细地咀嚼着他们的话。想着想着,我似乎突然开了窍:是呀,千变万变,这个地方不还是这个地方么?并没有成为北京或伦敦呀!

悖论:
现象世界瞬息万变,
如来真谛古今一相。

Monday, 17 November 2014

Complements of potentiality 可能补语



Complements of potentiality 可能补语


Dr Youxuan Wang
SLAS, University of Portsmouth
12 March 2013


1. Basic Rules:

(i) This type of complement is used when the speaker/writer is concerned with the possibility of success.

(ii) The main verb in the constituent of predicate recounts an action, while the complement which follows the main verb expresses the writer/speaker's view of the chance of success.

(iii) This type of complement can be constructed by transforming the complement of direction or the complement of direction.

Compare: Pay particular attention to the difference between 3a and 3b, and between 3a and 3b – in both their affirmative form and negative form

(3iii.a) Complements of result – affirmative and negative:

verb 1 + verb 2 = event 1 + event 2
In this construction, the second verb functions as a complement of result, e.g.:

<> tīngdǒng (listen + understand =  to listen and understand what has been heard): to understand what one has heard. [你说得很快,不过,我都听懂了。]
<>  kànjiàn (look and perceive = to look  and perceive what has been seen): to see. [我看见前面来了五个人。]
<> zuòwán (work and finish = to do and finish what one has worked on): to complete what one has worked on. [他用两个小时的时间把作业做完了。]

to have not (verb 1 + verb 2 = event 1 + event 2): the first action is completed, but it has not led to event 2 as the result of event 1
In this construction, the second verb functions as a complement of result, e.g.:

没听<> méi tīngdǒng (to have heard without understanding): to have not understood what one has heard .
没看<> méi kànjiàn (to have watched without perceiving): to have not seen/perceived what one has been trying to see.
没做<> méi zuòwán (to have worked without completing the task): to have not completed what one has worked on.

The two verbs are combined to denote a chain of actions/events.

(iii.b) Complements of potentiality – affirmative and negative
verb 1 + +  verb 2 = an antecedent + an consequent: if P, then Q.
This construction is used to expressed a condition: the first verb denotes a antecedent and the second verb following the structural word “” denoting a consequent: If action 1 is completed, action 2 will also be accomplished

<> tīng de dǒng (if one has heard something, one would understand it): to be capable of understanding something if one hears it, e.g.: 她听懂广东话。(She understands Cantonese – if/when she hears it being spoken.
<> kàn de dǒng (if one reads something, one would understand what one reads): to be capable of understanding what one reads, e.g. 她看得懂网上的文章。 (She understands the articles published on the Internet – if/shen she reads them.)


Exercise: explain the meaning of the following phrases:
<>
<>
       
< >
<>
<>
<>    

In this construction, the second verb functions as a complement of potentiality. The two verbs are combined to express condition: if P (an antecedent), then Q (a consequent).

(iii.a) Complement of direction – affirmative and negative
verb  of movement + directional verb  = event 1 + event 2
In this construction, the second verb functions as a complement of direction, e.g.:

<>: to get out
<>: to come over here.
<>: to lift up.
<>: to put down

+ verb  of movement + directional verb  = event 1 + event 2
In this construction, the second verb functions as a complement of direction, e.g.:
       
[] <>: not to have got out.
[] <>: not to have come over here.
[] <>: not to have lifted up.
[] <>: not to have put down.

Two verbs are used to describe a chain of actions/events.

(iii.b) Complements of potentiality – affirmative and negative.
verb  of movement + directional verb  = event 1 + event 2

<> (if 出, then, it is possible to ): possible to get out.
<>  (if 走, then, it is possible to ): possible to get here on foot.
<> (if 提, then, it is possible to ): possible to lift up
<> (if 放, then, it is possible to ):

Exercise: explain the meaning of the following phrases and make a sentence with each of them:
<> (even if 出,it is not possible to ):
<> (even if 走,it is not possible to ):
<> (even if 提,it is not possible to ):
<> (even if 放,it is not possible to ):

In this construction, the second verb functions as a complement of potentiality. The two verbs are combined to express condition: if P (an antecedent), then Q (a consequent).

(iv)  With complement of result or complement of direction, the negative adverb 没有 is placed before the verb.

(v.) With complement of potential or complement of direction, the negative adverb is placed before the complement. It is the content of the complement that is been negated.


2. Some idiomatic expressions in the complement of potentiality

In the following collocations, resultant and directional verbs are used in constructing complements of potentially.

(1)                 verb + / +
Verbs: 去,走,做, 用,吃 ……
Complement: liǎo, to complete, to finish
Example of a collocation: 得了, possible to get there

我明天有时间,能够去你们那儿看看。
我明天不忙,去得了你们那儿。
我明天很忙,去不了你们那儿。

这么多饺子我都能吃<>
才这几个饺子,我吃得了。
这么多饺子我吃不了。

我们需要用三个小时才能把工作做完。
我们用不了三个小时就能把工作做完。

(2)                 verb + / +
Verbs: (to take a photograph) (to chase, to catch),算  (to be counted, to be included) ……
Complement: shàng, to be included, to join.
Example of a collocation: 照得上, possible to have someone photographed.

你得向宋华靠近一点儿。要不,就照不上了。You might need to get closer to Song Hua. Otherwise, I wouldn't be able to include you in the picture.

由于刻苦努力,她很快就赶上了功课。

她虽然能歌善舞,但还算不上是一个专业演员。

(3)                 verb + / +
Describing the fact as to whether the space is capacious enough or not to hold an object in question.
Verbs: (to seat)、放 (to place)……
Complement: xià, settle.
Example of a collocation: 放得下, capacious enough to hold (a certain quantity of certain items)

这个书箱很大,放得下五十本书。
这个书箱小了一点,放不下五十本书。


(4)                 verb + / +
Verbs: (to buy)、轮 (to come to someone in turn)……
Complement: dào, to accomplish successfully/unfailingly.
Example of a collocation: 买得到, there is a very good chance of success in purchasing (a certain thing)

今天中午 在餐厅 见得到 小张 吗?Will you be able to see [unfailingly] Xiao Zhang in the canteen at lunchtime?


3. Example sentences in the textbook

(Textbook used in Portsmouth)
句子
课文
页码
|| <得去>吗?
33
104
|| <|不去>
33
105
 你们||   <得上去> 吗?
33
104
我们 ||   <不上去>
33
104
我们 ||    <得懂> 中文 网上的 文章?
33
105
我们 ||    <不懂> 中文 网上的 文章。
33
105


4. Exercises (book 3, 《实用汉语课本》)


3.1. 熟读下列短语:(1)-(4), pp. 112-113.
3.2. 句型替换:(1)-(4), pp. 113-114.